00 · IN THREE MINUTES

The answer in three steps

  1. 1Attention and viewing conditions limit what is encoded at the event.
  2. 2Later questions, conversations and identifications can become part of the reconstructed memory.
  3. 3Confidence is most informative when recorded immediately after a fair, uncontaminated identification—not after repeated reinforcement.

01 · THE CAMERA METAPHOR FAILS

The camera metaphor fails

Vision samples an event under limited time, distance, lighting and stress. Memory preserves selected relationships and features rather than a complete recording that can simply be replayed.

02 · RETRIEVAL IS RECONSTRUCTION

Retrieval is reconstruction

Remembering combines stored traces with schemas and current cues. This normally makes memory useful, but it also allows plausible information to fill gaps.

FIG. 02How the evidence fits together
A conceptual model: the geometry shows relationships, not measured scale.

03 · WORDING CAN ALTER REPORTS

Wording can alter reports

Classic experiments found different speed estimates after verbs such as “hit” and “smashed.” Later misinformation can change reported details without deliberate lying.

04 · IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURE MATTERS

Identification procedure matters

A lineup administrator who knows the suspect, a biased set of fillers or feedback after a choice can influence selection and confidence. Double-blind, fair procedures reduce contamination.

05 · CONFIDENCE NEEDS A TIME STAMP

Confidence needs a time stamp

An initial high-confidence identification under good conditions can be informative. Confidence measured after repetition, feedback or courtroom preparation has a different evidential meaning.

06 · SOURCES AND EVIDENCE

Sources and evidence

The explanation follows the evidence chain below. Links open the original source.

  1. 01
    Identifying the Culprit: Assessing Eyewitness Identification

    Supports a specific claim or evidence boundary used in this article.

    OFFICIAL DATA / TECHNICAL REPORT ↗
  2. 02
    Reconstruction of automobile destruction

    Supports a specific claim or evidence boundary used in this article.

    PRIMARY STUDY ↗
  3. 03
    Eyewitness identification procedures

    Supports a specific claim or evidence boundary used in this article.

    PEER-REVIEWED REVIEW ↗
CHANGE LOG28 Aug 2026 · First five-language edition; claims, evidence boundaries and visual model checked.